The short version of epithalamin fits in a sentence. The long version — which is the one that helps — is below.
This page was last updated on 2025-10-16 and is reviewed periodically as new material appears.
In its supplied form epitalon is a white to off-white powder, usually lyophilized and often hygroscopic. It dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers, and it is commonly handled as the acetate or trifluoroacetate salt to improve stability during purification and drying. The amide backbone is labile in aqueous media, so solutions are less durable than the dry solid. Handling notes in the chemical literature therefore emphasize keeping the powder dry, cool and shielded from light until it is dissolved.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, written in single-letter code as AEDG. The four residues are joined by three peptide bonds, giving a linear backbone with no branching and no disulfide bridges. Its calculated molecular mass for the free form is approximately 390.3 daltons, a figure that rises when the compound is supplied as an acetate or trifluoroacetate salt. Because the chain is short, the molecule is defined entirely by its residue order rather than by any folded three-dimensional structure.
Residue composition is the property that most cleanly separates verified material from mislabelled samples. Alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine appear in that order from the N-terminus, and the two acidic residues sit in the middle of the chain. Because the peptide is short, it can be produced by solid-phase synthesis and characterised by mass spectrometry without ambiguity. Any reported sample whose measured mass departs substantially from 390 daltons is a different compound or a degraded mixture rather than epitalon.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose four residues are alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and its monoisotopic mass is near 390.35 daltons. The peptide carries two acidic side chains, so it is neutral to negatively charged in most aqueous buffers. Published reference summaries usually list it under both spellings, epitalon and epithalon, and treat the two names as the same material.
The compound is generally described as a synthetic analogue of a fragment isolated from a pineal gland extract. Researchers associated with the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology introduced it during the 1980s and 1990s while studying short peptides from animal tissue. The original extract, called epithalamin, is a heterogeneous mixture, whereas epitalon is a single defined sequence. That distinction matters because findings reported for the extract are not automatically findings about the pure tetrapeptide, and claims about broader biological effects remain a separate question from the chemical identity described here.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic tetrapeptide | Four residues, linear chain |
| Residue sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Single-letter form AEDG |
| Calculated mass | 390.3 daltons | Value for the free, uncharged form |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Usually supplied lyophilized |
| Solubility | Freely soluble in water | Often handled as a salt form |
The peptide is a synthetic analogue of epithalamin, a preparation extracted from bovine pineal glands. Investigators sought a short, chemically defined molecule that would reproduce some of the endocrine and gerontological observations attributed to the glandular extract. Proposed mechanisms centre on induction of telomerase activity, an effect reported in cultured human somatic cells in the early 2000s, together with influences on melatonin secretion and neuroendocrine regulation. Those mechanisms remain incompletely characterised, and the reported telomerase response has not been consistently reproduced by independent groups working in comparable systems.
Published work on this compound consists mainly of in vitro experiments, animal studies, and small clinical investigations, a substantial share of which appeared in Russian-language journals. Sample sizes are generally small, control conditions differ between studies, and several endpoints rely on markers whose clinical meaning is itself debated. Reviews of the longevity field treat the peptide as an early example of telomerase-directed research rather than an established intervention. Regulatory treatment varies by country: some jurisdictions place it under prescription controls, others treat it as a laboratory material, and importation may be restricted regardless of local status.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide whose sequence is alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. It was developed in Russia during the 1980s and 1990s by investigators associated with the St. Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology, who studied short peptides as regulators of gene expression and tissue function. The alternative spelling epithalon appears interchangeably in the literature, and the two names refer to the same molecule. Outside Russia it is encountered chiefly as a research chemical rather than a licensed medicine, and it holds no approval from the United States Food and Drug Administration or the European Medicines Agency.
Material supplied for laboratory use is normally a lyophilised white to off-white powder that dissolves readily in water and in isotonic saline. Lyophilised cakes are hygroscopic and should be equilibrated to room temperature before opening to limit condensation on the solid. Solutions are typically prepared at milligram-per-millilitre concentrations and divided into single-use aliquots, because repeated freeze–thaw cycles degrade short peptides. Aqueous solutions are far less stable than the dry powder, and identity is usually verified by mass spectrometry alongside purity estimation from reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
Epitalon is a synthetic linear tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine–glutamate–aspartate–glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and the calculated mass is approximately 390.35 g/mol. The compound is made by solid-phase peptide synthesis rather than extracted from tissue, although early work described it as a short fragment of a peptide fraction obtained from bovine pineal extract. In the research literature the spelling epitalon and the variant epithalone both appear, while AEDG is the standard code used in peptide nomenclature.
In the smaller arteries, it consists principally of smooth muscle fibers in fine bundles, arranged in lamellae and disposed circularly around the vessel. These lamellae vary in number according to the size of the vessel; the smallest arteries having only a single layer, and those slightly larger three or four layers - up to a maximum of six layers. It is to this coat that the thickness of the wall of the artery is mainly due. In the larger arteries, as the iliac, femoral, and carotid, elastic fibers and collagen unite to form lamellae which alternate with the layers of smooth muscular fibers; these lamellae are united to one another by elastic fibers which pass between the smooth muscular bundles, and are connected with the fenestrated membrane of the inner coat. In the largest arteries, as the aorta and brachiocephalic, the amount of elastic tissue is considerable; in these vessels a few bundles of white connective tissue also have been found in the middle coat. The muscle fiber cells are arranged in 5 to 7 layers of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle with about 50μ in length and contain well-marked, rod-shaped nuclei, which are often slightly curved. Separating the tunica media from the outer tunica externa in larger arteries is the external elastic membrane (also called the external elastic lamina). This structure is not usually seen in smaller arteries, nor is it seen in veins.
Zirconium-based MOFs such as UiO-66 are a robust class of MOFs (attributed to strong hexanuclear Zr6 metallic nodes) with increased resistance to heat, solvents, and other harsh conditions, which makes them of interest in terms of mechanical properties. Determinations of shear modulus and pelletization have shown that the UiO-66 MOFs are mechanically robust and have high tolerance for pore collapse when compared to ZIFs and carboxylate MOFs. Although the UiO-66 MOF shows increased stability under pelletization, the UiO-66 MOFs amorphized fairly rapidly under ball milling conditions due to destruction of linker coordinating inorganic nodes.
Later, he served as the Republic's Minister of Justice. The first Grand Secretary of the new Grand Lodge was Aurelio Miranda Álvarez, who went by the Masonic codename Irving. The 1901 Constitution of Cuba, signed by many Freemasons, espoused many of the ideological views of the former GOCA and of the United Grand Lodge.
Ingestion of hydrogen peroxide at concentrations of 35% or higher has been implicated as the cause of numerous gas embolism events resulting in hospitalisation. In these cases, hyperbaric oxygen therapy was used to treat the embolisms. Intravenous injection of hydrogen peroxide has been linked to several deaths. The American Cancer Society states that "there is no scientific evidence that hydrogen peroxide is a safe, effective, or useful cancer treatment." Furthermore, the therapy is not approved by the U.S. FDA.
Nicotinic acid, or niacin, is an organic compound and a vitamer of vitamin B3, an essential human nutrient. It is produced by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan. Nicotinic acid is also a prescription medication. Amounts far in excess of the recommended dietary intake for vitamin functions will lower blood triglycerides and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), and raise blood high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, often referred to as "good" cholesterol). There are two forms: immediate-release and sustained-release nicotinic acid. Initial prescription amounts are 500 mg/day, increased over time until a therapeutic effect is achieved. Immediate-release doses can be as high as 3,000 mg/day; sustained-release as high as 2,000 mg/day. Despite the proven lipid changes, nicotinic acid has not been found useful for decreasing the risk of cardiovascular disease in those already prescribed a statin drug. A 2010 review had concluded that nicotinic acid was effective as a mono-therapy, but a 2017 review incorporating twice as many trials concluded that prescription nicotinic acid, while affecting lipid levels, did not reduce all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, myocardial infarctions, nor fatal or non-fatal strokes. Prescription nicotinic acid was shown to cause hepatotoxicity and increase risk of type 2 diabetes. Nicotinic acid prescriptions in the United States had peaked in 2009 at 9.4 million, declining to 800 thousand by 2020. In 2023, it was the 288th most commonly prescribed medication in the US, with more than 500,000 prescriptions.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The Treuhandanstalt (German: [ˈtʁɔɪ̯hantˌʔanʃtalt] , "Trust agency"), colloquially referred to as Treuhand, was a government agency of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) from June to October 1990 and reunified Germany from 1990 to 1994, responsible for the reprivatisation/privatisation of the Volkseigene Betriebe (VEBs) and other state-owned enterprises in East Germany. The Treuhand was established by the Volkskammer of East Germany during Die Wende, to oversee the restructure and sale of about 8,500 state-owned companies with over four million employees – the world's largest industrial enterprise, controlling everything from steel works to the Babelsberg Studios. It inherited the assets of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany and other East German government agencies after German reunification in October 1990. The Treuhand was dissolved by the Federal Government of Germany on 1 January 1995 and reconstituted as the Federal Agency for Special Tasks Related to Unification (Bundesanstalt für vereinigungsbedingte Sonderaufgaben) which was active until 2000. The Treuhand has faced criticism and opposition for its handling of the privatisation process in the former East Germany, particularly for excessive liquidation and the resulting layoffs. On 1 April 1991, Treuhand chairman Detlev Karsten Rohwedder was assassinated by the Red Army Faction (RAF), a West German far-left terrorist group sponsored and supported by the East German Stasi. The shooter has never been identified.
Newton used "indigo" to describe one of the two new primary colors he added to the five he had originally named, in his revised account of the rainbow in Lectiones Opticae of 1675. Because of its high value as a trading commodity, indigo was often referred to as blue gold. In the early days of Islam, Christians were expected to wear a blue turban or mantle to identify them. In Egypt, which was majority Christian and remained so for generations, this created a high demand for blue dye, particularly indigo. Even though regulation of the distinguishing dress relaxed from the 10-16th centuries, indigo remained a significant part of the Egyptian economy. It lost its Christian connotations and became the color of the people's dress, because it was plentiful and cheap. It remained so until the 19th century. The British taxed farmers who grew indigo to encourage people to grow cotton, and restricted water use in favor of cotton. This also affected flax, which had been a popular local fiber for indigo dyers. This, paired with the import of cheap black cotton fabrics from Britain, caused blue to fall out of favor in Egyptian women's dress in the early 20th century. Egyptian men continued to wear indigo for some time, but the total preference for the dye waned as well. Blue was also a mourning color, and mourning women would dye their faces, arms, and hands blue for the week after the death and periodic grave visitations. Blue cloths were worn and waved around at these times as well to accompany the women's wailing.
Hyperuricemia associated with classic primary gout, which is caused by low uric acid renal clearance rather than uric acid overproduction, is not associated with neuropathology. Hypouricemia occurs in a number of purine disorders, in particular xanthinuria. Despite having complete absence of blood uric acid, xanthinuria patients do not have any neuropathology, nor any other disease states – other than the kidney stones caused by accumulation of insoluble xanthine in lieu of uric acid. Similarly, uric acid does not penetrate the blood–brain barrier well. However, oxidative stress due to uric acid is now thought to figure in metabolic syndrome, atherosclerosis, and stroke, all syndromes associated with high uric acid levels. Similarly, Superoxide dismutase ( "SOD" ) and SOD-mimetics such as TEMPOL ameliorate the effects of hyperuricemia. Likewise, 6-hydroxydopamine (the putative animal model for Lesch–Nyhan's neuropathy) apparently acts as a neurotoxin by generation of reactive oxygen species. It may be that oxidative stress induced by some other oxypurine such as xanthine causes the disease.
== Late Republican legions == Republican legions were formed by compulsory levy of Roman citizens (who met a minimum property qualification) and raised whenever it was necessary. Usually they were authorized by the Roman Senate and later disbanded. Throughout the late Republic, soldiers and commanders served only for short periods intending, respectively, to secure plunder or political advancement from military victory. There is little evidence of changes in the wealth and social backgrounds of the men who joined before and after the opening of recruitment; the pay remained pitiful. Conscription remained the main method by which Rome mustered troops. The evidence for the abolition of property requirements is very weak, and there were no significant changes in population size or demographics that would drive such a reduction. The bulk of recruits were still landed citizens, who would appear poor to the elites authoring the surviving sources. Again, their pay was not enough to sustain professional career in the military, and soldiers generally did not expect land grants after discharge. In the last century of the Republic, proconsuls governing frontier provinces became increasingly powerful. Their command of standing legions in distant and arduous military campaigns resulted in the allegiance of those units transferring from the Roman state to themselves.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
The peptide contains four residues in the order alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, abbreviated AEDG. The chain is linear and held together by three peptide bonds. Its calculated mass for the uncharged free form is about 390.3 daltons.
Epithalamin refers to a crude preparation derived from bovine pineal tissue, which contains many components. Epitalon is a single synthetic tetrapeptide identified from that material and produced by chemical synthesis. The two names are sometimes confused because early reports treated the synthetic peptide as an active fragment of the extract.
It has been registered for clinical use in Russia, where it is associated with a small family of short peptides. In most other jurisdictions it is not an approved medicine and is traded as a research chemical. Regulatory status varies by country and changes over time.
It is a four-amino-acid peptide built from alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine in that order. Its formula is C14H22N4O9, and it is made by chemical synthesis rather than extracted from tissue. The synthetic peptide is a single defined molecule, unlike the pineal extracts it is often compared with.