Everything below concerns AEDG. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2026-01-01. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the residue sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, commonly abbreviated AEDG. Its monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons, and it is usually supplied as a lyophilised trifluoroacetate or acetate salt. The compound was derived from a pineal gland extract called epithalamin, a heterogeneous preparation investigated in the former Soviet Union. Researchers associated with the Saint Petersburg Institute of Bioregulation and Gerontology described the tetrapeptide as a constituent fragment of that extract. Commercial material is offered as a laboratory reagent rather than as a finished pharmaceutical product.
Literature searches for this compound must account for several spelling variants. Indexing databases contain epitalon, epithalon, epithalone, and AEDG, and relevant records are scattered across Russian-language and English-language journals that do not consistently cross-cite. Early publications describe the parent extract as a mixture of many peptides, whereas later work addresses the single synthetic tetrapeptide. That shift in nomenclature complicates comparison between studies, because extract data and tetrapeptide data are sometimes cited interchangeably. A search strategy omitting the alternate spellings will return an incomplete set of references.
Reported biological findings come mainly from cell culture and rodent experiments. Those studies describe changes in telomerase catalytic subunit expression, melatonin rhythm amplitude, and antioxidant enzyme activity after peptide exposure. Human data are sparse and consist of small trials with limited blinding and inconsistent endpoints. The proposed mechanisms remain hypotheses rather than established facts, and there is no consensus on whether effects observed in animals carry over to people. Independent replication outside the original research groups is limited, which is a recognised gap in the published literature.
The compound is described in the literature as a derivative of epithalamin, a preparation obtained from bovine pineal tissue. Work on this peptide family was carried out mainly by a research group in Saint Petersburg beginning in the 1980s, and the substance was later registered for clinical use in Russia under the name Epitalon. Outside that region it is generally treated as a research chemical rather than an approved medicine. Statements about its biological activity rest on a relatively small number of studies, and independent replication remains limited.
In its supplied form epitalon is a white to off-white powder, usually lyophilized and often hygroscopic. It dissolves readily in water and in aqueous buffers, and it is commonly handled as the acetate or trifluoroacetate salt to improve stability during purification and drying. The amide backbone is labile in aqueous media, so solutions are less durable than the dry solid. Handling notes in the chemical literature therefore emphasize keeping the powder dry, cool and shielded from light until it is dissolved.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic tetrapeptide | Four amino acid residues |
| Residue sequence | Ala-Glu-Asp-Gly | Abbreviated AEDG |
| Approximate mass | 390.35 Da | Monoisotopic, free base form |
| Parent preparation | Epithalamin extract | Derived from pineal tissue |
| Common spelling variants | Epithalon, epithalone, AEDG | Affects literature retrieval |
Storage recommendations center on limiting moisture, heat, and light. The dry powder is generally kept at minus 20 degrees Celsius, and some suppliers recommend minus 80 degrees for long-term archival. Once dissolved, solutions are usually aliquoted and frozen to avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, which can promote aggregation or degradation. Aqueous stability depends on pH and concentration, and buffered saline is often preferred over plain water for biological work. Stability data specific to epitalon remain limited, so general peptide-handling practices are applied by analogy rather than from product-specific validation.
Epitalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, abbreviated AEDG. Its molecular formula is C14H22N4O9 and its calculated monoisotopic mass is approximately 390.35 daltons. The compound does not occur naturally as a free peptide; it is produced by solid-phase peptide synthesis. Because it contains two acidic residues and no basic residues, the neutral form carries a net negative charge at physiological pH. This charge profile influences how the peptide behaves in solution and during chromatographic analysis.
Laboratory work has examined effects on telomerase activity in cultured cells, on melatonin rhythms in animals, and on markers of oxidative stress. Some experiments report measurable changes while others show none, and the reported findings rest largely on small studies. The absence of large independent trials means the generality of these results is unresolved rather than settled. Review articles occasionally apply the label geroprotector, a term that reflects a research hypothesis about ageing rather than an established clinical finding.
Epitalon is the common name for a synthetic tetrapeptide with the sequence alanine-glutamate-aspartate-glycine, usually abbreviated AEDG. All four residues are proteinogenic amino acids, and the free peptide has a calculated mass near 390 grams per mole. Because the chain is short and carries no modifications, it is assembled readily by solid-phase synthesis and is distributed mainly as a freeze-dried solid for laboratory work. Catalogue listings use the spellings epitalon, epithalone, and simply AEDG, and the three refer to the same sequence.
The study also found that, in contrast, treatment of transgender women with estrogen and CPA (which is progestogenic in addition to antiandrogenic, unlike NSAAs) resulted in full lobuloalevolar development, as well as pregnancy-like breast hyperplasia in two of the subjects. In addition, it was observed that the lobuloalveolar maturation reversed upon discontinuation of CPA after sex reassignment surgery in these individuals. It was concluded that progestogen in addition to antiandrogen/estrogen treatment is required for the induction of full female histological breast development (i.e., that includes complete lobuloalveolar maturation), and that continued progestogen treatment is necessary to maintain such maturation. It should be noted however that although these findings may have important implications in the contexts of lactation and breastfeeding, epithelial tissue accounts for approximately only 10% of breast volume (with the bulk of the breasts (80–90%) being represented by stromal or adipose tissue), and it is uncertain to what extent, if any, that development of lobuloalveolar structures (a form of epithelial tissue) contributes to breast size and/or shape.
=== Availability === Suvorexant has been marketed in the United States, Canada, Australia, Russia, and Japan. Although previously available, suvorexant appears to have been discontinued in Canada. It does not appear to be available in the United Kingdom or other European countries besides Russia.
==== France ==== The first location in France opened in Paris in May 2012. Expansion in France was much slower than that in the United Kingdom or Canada, with a second location in Paris opening in 2013 and a third location in 2014. At the time of its opening in 2014, the restaurant at La Défense was the largest Chipotle location in the world at 7,000 square feet (650 m2), while a typical Chipotle restaurant is usually between 2,200 square feet (200 m2) and 2,500 square feet (230 m2). A fourth Parisian location was opened in Levallois-Perret in 2015 followed by a fifth Parisian location in Saint-Germain-des-Prés in 2016. The company opened its seventh location in France and its first location outside the Paris region, inside Lyon's La Part-Dieu shopping mall in 2021.
=== No development reported === AB-1224 – microbiome modulator AGX-201 (histamine dihydrochloride salt) – histamine H1 receptor antagonist and histamine H3 receptor agonist Aminolevulinic acid/sodium ferrous citrate (5-ALA-SFC, 5-ALA/SFX; sodium ferrous citrate/aminolevulinic acid; SPP-003) – erythropoiesis stimulant and photosensitizer Aripiprazole transdermal (AQS-1301; transdermal aripiprazole) – dopamine D2 and D3 receptor partial agonist, serotonin 5-HT1A and 5-HT7 receptor partial agonist, serotonin 5-HT2A and 5-HT2B receptor antagonist or inverse agonist, and atypical antipsychotic BAER-101 (AZ-7325; AZD-7325) – selective GABAA α2 and α3 subunit-containing receptor positive allosteric modulator BBP-472 – phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase β (PI3Kβ) inhibitor Fasoracetam co-crystallised (co-crystallised fasoracetam; AEVI-004) – various actions and racetam Guanfacine once-daily (Guanfacine Carrier Wave; SPD-547) – α2-adrenergic receptor agonist KBLP-010 – bacteria replacement and microbiome modulator Oxytocin intranasal (OPN-300; OptiNose oxytocin) – oxytocin receptor agonist Research programme: allosteric modulators - Addex Therapeutics (various) – various actions Research programme: antisense oligonucleotide therapeutics - RogCon U.R (RCUR-313, RCUR-SMP) – voltage-gated sodium channel Nav1.2 expression stimulants Research programme: autism and obesity therapeutics - Berand Neuropharmacology – histone deacetylase inhibitors Research programme: brain development disorder therapeutics - Seaside Therapeutics (STX-110) – metabotropic glutamate mGlu5 receptor antagonists and muscarinic acetylcholine M1 receptor antagonists Research programme: cannabinoid receptor modulators - GW Pharmaceuticals (cannabigerol; CBG) – cannabinoid receptor modulators Research programme: cannabis extract therapeutics - Cannabis Science (CBIS compounds) – cannabinoid receptor modulators Research programme: central nervous system therapeutics - AbbVie/Rugen – undefined mechanism of action Research programme: CNS disorder therapeutics - Promentis Pharmaceuticals – antioxidants, glutamate receptor modulators, SLC7A11 modulators Research programme: CNS disorders therapeutics - Sage Therapeutics (SAGE-105; SGE-202; SGE-301; SGE-516) – GABAA receptor modulators and ionotropic glutamate NMDA receptor modulators Research programme: G protein-coupled receptor modulating small molecules - Omeros Corporation – G protein-coupled receptor modulator and neuromedin U receptor modulator Research programme: GPCR modulators - Nxera Pharma – various actions Research programme: immunomodulating bacteria-based therapeutics - 4D Pharma – bacteria replacements Research programme: metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 antagonists - Roche/Seaside Therapeutics – metabotropic glutamate mGlu5 receptor antagonists Research programme: oxytocin intranasal - Pastorus Pharma – neurotransmitter modulators/oxytocin receptor agonists Research programme: therapeutic autoantibodies - Sengenics – undefined mechanism of action RG-7713 (RG7713) – vasopressin V1A receptor antagonist Tideglusib (AMO-02, NP-031112, NP-12; Nypta, Zentylor) – glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) inhibitor Vafidemstat (ORY-2001) – dual lysine specific demethylase 1 (LSD1) inhibitor and monoamine oxidase B (MAO-B) inhibitor Xenon (NBTX-001) – ionotropic glutamate NMDA receptor antagonist
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== References == Crowl, Philip A. (1995). The Pacific War: Campaign in the Marianas. United States Army in World War II. United States Army Center of Military History. ISBN 978-0-16-089915-7. LCCN 60-60000. Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 10 February 2017. Hoyt, Edwin Palmer (1986). Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict, 1853 to 1952. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-030612-5. Morison, Samuel Eliot (1953). New Guinea and the Marianas, March 1944 – August 1944. History of United States Naval Operations in World War II. Vol. VIII. Little, Brown and Company. Polmar, Norman (2008). Aircraft Carriers: A History of Carrier Aviation and Its Influence on World Events, 1946–2006. Vol. II. Washington, D.C.: Potomac Books. pp. 377–400. ISBN 978-1-57488-665-8. Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2014. Potter, E. B. (1990). Admiral Arleigh Burke. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-692-6. Roscoe, Theodore (1949). Pig Boats. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-13040-4. {{cite book}}: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help) Shaw, Henry I. Jr.; Nalty, Bernard C.; Turnbladh, Edwin T. (1966). "Strategic Victory in the Marianas Liberation of Guam; Capture of Saipan and Tinian". Central Pacific Drive (PDF). History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II. Vol. III. Historical Branch, G-3 Division, Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 25 November 2020. Shores, Christopher (1985). Duel for the Sky: Ten Crucial Battles of World War II. London: Grub Street. ISBN 978-0-7137-1601-6.
The clinical course is determined by an immunological interplay between two types of T cells (Th1 and Th2 responses). SCD is often considered a subset of SNAS, but with only skin manifestations. SNAS presents with an array of symptoms ranging from respiratory to generalized skin rash to gastrointestinal symptoms. The gastrointestinal symptoms may mimic those of irritable bowel syndrome. A meta review evaluating SNAS found that 1% of patients sensitized to nickel reacted to the nickel content of a 'normal' diet, and with increasing doses of nickel more individuals reacted. SNAS is a multilayered immunological response demonstrating variance between individuals and doses of nickel exposure.
Phenylpiracetam, also known as fonturacetam (INNTooltip International nonproprietary name) and sold under the brand names Phenotropil, Actitropil, and Carphedon among others, is a stimulant and nootropic medication used in Russia and certain other Eastern European countries in the treatment of cerebrovascular deficiency, depression, apathy, attention, and memory problems, among other indications. It is also used in Russian cosmonauts to improve physical, mental, and cognitive abilities. The drug is taken by mouth. Side effects of phenylpiracetam include sleep disturbances among others. The mechanism of action of phenylpiracetam was originally unknown. However, it was discovered that (R)-phenylpiracetam is a selective atypical dopamine reuptake inhibitor in 2014. In addition, phenylpiracetam interacts with certain nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. Chemically, phenylpiracetam is a racetam and phenethylamine and is structurally related to piracetam. Phenylpiracetam was first described in 1983 by Bobkov Iu, et al. It was approved for medical use in Russia in 2003. Development of (R)-phenylpiracetam (code name MRZ-9547) in the West as a potential treatment for fatigue related to Parkinson's disease began by 2014. In addition to its medical use, phenylpiracetam is sold online as a nootropic.
== Function == Msr is ubiquitous and highly conserved. Human and animal studies have shown the highest levels of expression in kidney and liver. It carries out the enzymatic reduction of methionine sulfoxide (MetO), the oxidized form of the amino acid methionine (Met), back to methionine, using thioredoxin to catalyze the enzymatic reduction and repair of oxidized methionine residues. Its proposed function is thus the repair of oxidative damage to proteins to restore biological activity. Oxidation of methionine residues in tissue proteins can cause them to misfold or otherwise render them dysfunctional.
=== Collaborative history with Pharrell Williams === As a teenage rapper, Malice met music producers Chad Hugo and Pharrell Williams in 1988 and 1990, respectively. Hugo and Williams knew each other and would go on to form the production duo the Neptunes. One day, Pusha T was at Hugo's house and started rapping. Impressed, Williams convinced the brothers to form a rap duo. Clipse's intended debut album, Exclusive Audio Footage (1999), was shelved by Elektra Records; their actual debut Lord Willin' was released by the Neptunes' record label Star Trak Entertainment in 2002. The Neptunes would go on to have production credits on every commercially released studio album by Clipse until the latter's disbandment. Williams claimed to not be on speaking terms with Hugo in 2024 in light of a lawsuit from the latter against him over claims that he was monopolizing the Neptunes name. When asked in 2024 if Clipse worked with Hugo on Let God Sort Em Out, Pusha T denied it. He also responded not being "familiar with" the lawsuit. Clipse stated in 2025 that they still have a strong personal relationship with Hugo, although they differed on whether they missed working with him musically; Pusha T stated that his favorite Clipse album Hell Hath No Fury (2006) was produced entirely by Williams. Malice references the breakup on promotional single "So Be It"—"Ain't no more Neptunes, so P's Saturn."
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
It is based on epithalamin, a peptide-rich preparation obtained from pineal gland tissue and studied in the former Soviet Union. Researchers later identified the tetrapeptide AEDG as a constituent fragment of that material. Modern supplies are produced by chemical synthesis rather than tissue extraction.
No. Epithalamin is a heterogeneous extract containing many peptides, while epitalon is a single synthesised tetrapeptide. Publications sometimes treat findings from the two as equivalent, which is a common source of confusion. Their compositions differ and they are not interchangeable in analytical terms.
Most published work uses cell cultures or rodents because those models are faster and less costly to run. The few human trials that have been reported are small, and several lack control groups or blinding. This restricts what can reasonably be concluded about effects in people.
The peptide contains four residues in the order alanine, glutamate, aspartate and glycine, abbreviated AEDG. The chain is linear and held together by three peptide bonds. Its calculated mass for the uncharged free form is about 390.3 daltons.